Forage crops, also known as fodder crops, are specifically grown to provide food for livestock. These crops are typically grown for their leaves and stems which are used as animal feed. They are normally fed by the livestock animals by grazing or in the form of harvested hay or silage. The timing of both grazing events and the cutting for hay or silage are critical to ensuring that the quality and quantity of conserved fodder are optimized. These crops are grown for their high protein content, digestibility and palatability, which are essential for the health and productivity of livestock. Properly fed animals are less prone to diseases and infections and their milk and meat production can increase significantly.
They can be grown as a monocrop or as mixed crop along with wheat or legumes or as cover crop depending on the intended use. Forage crops are an essential component of agriculture, providing a reliable and cost-effective source of animal feed. They are also important for sustainable agriculture, as they can help improve soil health and reduce erosion. Additionally, many forage crops have other uses, such as in biofuels, food or fiber production.
Commonly cultivated fodder/forage crops
Legumes: Cowpea, Lucerne
Cereal fodder: Fodder maize, Fodder sorghum, Pearl millet
Grass fodder: Napier, Guinea grass, Para grass, Blue buffel grass
Tree fodder: Sesbania, Gliricidia
Types of Forage Crops
Fodder/Forage crops can be classified into two main categories: Annual and Perennial.
Annual Forage crops: These crops are grown for a single growing season and are generally sown in the summer or monsoon season. Fodder maize, fodder sorghum and millets fall under this category.
Perennial Forage crops: Unlike annual crops, perennial forage crops can persist for several years, regrowing after each harvest, thus making them a more sustainable and long-term source of feed for livestock. Lucerne and grasses fall under this category.
Importance of Forage crops in Agriculture
Forage crops provide nutrients and high-quality feed for livestock, supporting the health and productivity of animals. Increased productivity of milk and meat contributes to agricultural production.
They help to improve soil fertility and structure, reduce soil erosion and enhance water retention capacity.
Many forage crops are drought-tolerant and can continue to grow even in the absence of rainfall, making them ideal for areas with limited water resources.
They can be used as part of a crop rotation system, which helps to break disease cycles and reduce soil-borne pests.
They provide a valuable source of income for farmers by selling them as hay or silage which can be stored and sold throughout the year.
Forage crops play an important role in carbon sequestration. These crops have deep and extensive root systems that can penetrate into the soil and store carbon. It contributes to soil organic matter, thus reducing the need for synthetic fertilizers.
These crops help to improve biodiversity by providing a diverse range of habitats for beneficial insects, birds and soil microorganisms.
Forage crops are an important component of sustainable agriculture, helping to promote biodiversity, reduce chemical inputs and maintain soil health over the long term
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Conclusion
Forage crops play a vital role in sustainable agriculture by providing a source of high-quality livestock feed, improving soil health, increasing biodiversity and supporting the long-term productivity of farming systems. Forage crops can be an important tool for producers, provided the right crop is selected, right management practice is taken to ensure that the crop is fully utilized in its most productive and nutritious phases of growth. Forage crops are vulnerable to pests and diseases which must be managed to minimize their impact on productivity. Proper harvesting and cutting can improve forage quality, yield and nutritional value, while also promoting regrowth and sustainable forage production. Government of India has launched several initiatives to promote the cultivation of high-quality fodder crops, such as the National Livestock Mission and Rastriya Krishi Vikas Yojana.
An Ultimate Guide to Watermelon Diseases: Causes, Symptoms, and Control Measures
Watermelon is an important fruit crop in India widely grown in summer season and has the potential to provide significant economic benefits to farmers. They are easy to grow, require relatively little maintenance and have short growing season. However, the crop is vulnerable to a number of fungal, bacterial and viral diseases that can cause significant yield losses and reduce the quality of the fruit. It can be difficult to control watermelon diseases once they are established in the field. Early detection and prompt management using appropriate fungicides or bactericides can help to limit the spread of disease and minimize crop losses.
Common types of Watermelon Diseases
Disease type
Diseases
Stage of occurrence
Fungal Diseases
Downy mildew
Vegetative stage
Powdery mildew
Vegetative, fruiting stage
Anthracnose
Vegetative, fruiting stage
Alternaria leaf spot
Vegetative stage
Fusarium wilt
Vegetative, fruiting stage
Gummy stem blight
Vegetative, fruiting stage
Bacterial Diseases
Bacterial wilt
Vegetative stage
Bacterial Fruit Blotch
Vegetative, fruiting stage
Viral Diseases
Bud necrosis disease
Vegetative stage
Cucumber mosaic virus
Vegetative, fruiting stage
Fungal Diseases in Watermelon
Downy Mildew in Watermelon
Downy mildew in watermelon is caused by the fungal pathogen Pseudoperonospora cubensis.
Causes:
Presence of infected plant debris and weed hosts cause the primary spread of the disease. Wind and rain splash causes the spread of spores to the healthy plants. High soil moisture, cool, wet and humid conditions and temperature (15 – 23°C) favours disease incidence.
Symptoms of Downy Mildew in Watermelon:
Yellowish angular spots appear on the upper surface of the leaves. The yellowing often starts at the edges of the leaves and then spreads towards the center.
As the disease progresses, a white or grayish powdery fungal growth appears on the underside of the leaves when the leaves are wet.
These spots later turn brown to black (necrosis). Later, the leaves may wilt and die.
It can cause stunted growth of the plants. Affected plants may appear smaller than usual, with fewer fruits.
In case of severe infection, the fruits produced may be smaller, misshapen or have bitter taste.
Powdery mildew is a common and destructive disease caused by the fungal pathogen Erysiphe cichoracearum / Sphaerotheca fuliginea.
Causes:
Fungal spores overwintering in dormant buds, plant debris or weeds causes disease development. Wind currents spread the disease. Rainfall, morning dew, dry weather conditions favours disease incidence.
Symptoms of Powdery Mildew in Watermelon:
White, powdery spots or patches on the leaves, stems and young growing parts of the plant. Later, it may spread rapidly and cover the entire leaf surface.
The white powdery spots may gradually turn yellow or brown and become necrotic.
The affected leaves may curl or become distorted and the fruit may stop growing or become deformed.
Leads to premature defoliation and death of affected areas.
Anthracnose is a fungal disease caused by the pathogen Colletotrichum orbiculare / Colletotrichum lagenarium affects all parts of the plant and reduces fruit quality.
Causes:
Fungal spores over wintering in the soil causes disease development. Temperature (24 – 30°C), high humidity, leaf wetness favours anthracnose incidence in watermelon plants.
Symptoms of Anthracnose in Watermelon:
Small, circular or irregularly shaped spots appear on leaves, stems and fruit that are dark brown or black in color.
The spots may have a water-soaked appearance and may be surrounded by a yellow halo.
In severe cases, the affected leaves drop prematurely.
Lesions on the stem girdle the vascular tissues and causes wilting of wines.
Infected fruit may show sunken lesions, cracks and rot.
Alternaria Leaf Spot / Alternaria Blight in Watermelon:
Alternaria leaf spot is a fungal disease caused by the pathogen Alternaria cucumerina.
Causes:
Fungus overwintering in the soil debris causes primary spread of the disease. Weakened plants due to lack of proper fertilization, warm weather, continuous wet conditions favours disease development.
Symptoms of Alternaria Leaf Spot in Watermelon:
Small, circular or irregularly shaped spots appear on leaves that are initially water-soaked, then turn brown or black as they dry out.
The spots may have a yellow halo and may merge to form larger lesions.
The infected leaves may become distorted, wilt, and eventually die.
Affected fruits may have lesions on the surface that are sunken, brown, and dry.
In severe cases, the disease can cause complete defoliation of vines and reduce fruit quality and yield.
Fusarium Wilt is a fungal disease caused by the pathogen Fusarium oxysporum that can cause severe yield loss, if not managed at right time.
Causes:
Infected soil, wounds in roots and infected seeds causes fungal spread. Secondary spread occurs through wind, tools or equipments. High soil temperature and soil moisture favours disease infection.
Symptoms of Fusarium Wilt in Watermelon:
Stunted growth of the plant and yellowing of leaves, especially older leaves.
Leaves may wilt and become brittle, eventually die.
Vascular tissue (xylem) of the stem and roots may show brown discoloration and the stems may develop cracks.
In severe cases, the plant may die.
Wilting symptoms during maturity stage can cause premature fruit drops, reduced yield and quality.
Gummy stem blight is a serious fungal disease caused by the pathogen Didymella bryoniae.
Causes:
Humidity (>85%), rainfall, longer period of leaf wetness, overhead irrigation and infected seeds/transplant materials may cause disease development. The optimum temperature for the disease incidence is about 24°C. Presence of wounds, feeding activity of cucumber beetle and aphids, along with powdery mildew incidence may induce development of gummy stem blight infection.
Symptoms of Gummy Stem Blight in Watermelon:
Brown to black, circular water-soaked lesions appear on stems which later become dry and wilt
Irregular tan to brown blotches appears on the leaves which may lead to wilting and blight of foliage.
The development of a gummy, reddish brown substance on the surface of the lesions, which gives the disease its name.
Premature senescence and defoliation of the plants.
Bacterial wilt is a destructive disease caused by the bacterium Erwinia tracheiphila.
Vector – Cucumber beetle
Causes:
The bacterium responsible for bacterial wilt is transmitted by the striped or spotted cucumber beetle, which feeds on the leaves of the plant and then transfers the bacteria to the stem. Presence of plant debris or alternate host, wounds in root system, high temperature, high humidity and soil moisture and alkaline pH of soil favours disease incidence. Heavy soils that can retain soil moisture for long duration are highly vulnerable to the disease.
Symptoms of Bacterial Wilt in Watermelon:
Sudden wilting of leaves which later turn dull green but remain attached to the stem.
Wilting of the entire plant, which progresses from the point of bacterial entry through vascular tissue towards the main stem.
Death of the plant within a few days of infection.
Sticky or slimy exudates on the surface of the stem near the soil line.
Collapse of the stem when the plant is cut at or above the soil line.
Bacterial fruit blotch is a bacterial disease caused by the pathogen Acidovorax citrulli.
Causes:
Seeds from infected fruit, plant debris in the soil, presence of weed hosts causes bacterial fruit blotch infection. Infected seeds are the primary source of this disease spread. While over-head irrigation, mechanical transmission through workers’ hands and tools or equipment acts as secondary source of infection. High temperature (>32°C) and high humidity also favours disease incidence.
Symptoms of Bacterial Fruit Blotch in Watermelon:
Dark reddish-brown spots may develop along the leaf veins.
Dark green to brown, water-soaked spots on the fruit, which can appear in a circular pattern or as a long streak. It can cause the development of distinctive cracks on the fruit surface.
The flesh underneath the spots may become soft, watery and discolored.
Infected fruit may develop a sour smell and ooze a sticky, tan-colored substance.
Stunting and reduced yield of the plant.
Management of Bacterial Fruit Blotch in Watermelon:
Bud necrosis is caused by Tomato Spotted Wilt Virus (TOSPO virus)
Vector – Thrips
Causes:
Main source of transmitting this virus in watermelon is thrips. Presence of alternate hosts, dense planting, hot and dry weather favors thrips population which increases the spread of the disease.
Symptoms of Bud Necrosis Disease in Watermelon:
Yellowing or bronzing of leaves, especially younger leaves.
Small, dark brown or black spots or rings may develop on the leaves.
The new growth or buds may become stunted and show brown or black necrotic spots and hence the disease name ‘Bud necrosis’. It results in decay of floral structures.
The fruit surface may also showring spots and may become deformed or discolored.
In severe cases, the plant may become stunted and eventually die.
Cucumber Mosaic Virus (CMV) in Watermelon
Vector – Aphids
Causes:
The virus is carried and transmitted through vector aphids. Other means of transmission include infected seeds and grafts, weeds, mechanical transmission through tools or equipments and farm workers hands.
Symptoms of Cucumber Mosaic Virus in Watermelon:
Leaves may curl downward and show mottled or streaked discoloration, usually with a yellow-green color.
Leaves may also show puckering or distortion and may become brittle or necrotic.
Veins of the affected leaves appear bushy due to shortening of internodes.
The fruit may show a yellow or green mosaic pattern and may become deformed or small.
The plant may become stunted or distorted, and in severe cases, may die.
The virus can also reduce the overall yield and quality of the fruit.
Refer to the product’s label before use to find the right time of application.
Bio-fungicide and chemical fungicide are incompatible., therefore they should not be mixed together.
It is advised to spray Bio-fungicides during early morning or evening hours when the temperature is relatively cool to get best results.
Conclusion
Watermelon is susceptible to several diseases caused by fungi, bacteria, and viruses. To manage these diseases, it is important to implement good cultural practices such as crop rotation, proper irrigation, fertilization and spacing of plants. In addition, maintaining proper field sanitation can be effective in preventing or controlling disease outbreaks since most of the diseases are spread through over wintering spores in crop debris. Right time and right dose of application of chemicals to control diseases and disease-causing vectors can help to reduce yield loss. By implementing these measures, you can protect your watermelon crop and achieve maximum yields.
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10 Common Pests of Watermelon you Need to Know About and How to Control Them
Watermelon, scientifically known as Citrullus lanatus, belongs to the family Cucurbitaceae which includes other plants such as cucumber, squash and pumpkin.The watermelon plant is a vine-like plant that is typically grown in warm, tropical or subtropical climates. The fruit is dominant during summer season especially due to its high-water content and delicious taste. Major watermelon producing states in India includes Uttar Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and Orissa. Watermelon crops are susceptible to a variety of pests that can cause significant damage to the plants and reduce the overall yield of the crop.
Common insect pests affecting watermelon crops are discussed here;
Red Pumpkin Beetle
Scientific name: Aulacophora foveicollis
Pest stage of attack: Larva and adult
Stage of occurrence: Seedling/Vegetative stage
Identification of Symptoms
Complete destruction of seedling due to adult feeding
Leaves show riddled holes or notches due to beetle infestation leading to complete defoliation
Larvae feed on roots and stems causing rotting and withering
The beetles may also feed on the fruits, causing scars or holes, which can lead to rotting or sunburned spots on the fruit
The undersurface of the fruits touching the soil surface will have larval tunnels in the surface.
The female fruit fly lays eggs under the skin of the fruit, which causes small puncture marks on the surface of the watermelon
After the eggs hatch, the larvae burrow into the fruit and feed on the flesh, contaminating it with frass excreta, thus making it susceptible to secondary infections by fungi and bacteria
The damage caused by the fruit flies can cause rotting and premature dropping of fruits
Stage of occurrence: Seedling, Vegetative, flowering
Vector: Watermelon Mosaic Virus
Identification of Symptoms
Small, pear-shaped, soft bodies insects can be found on leaves or stems of the plant
Aphids’ feeds on the tender shoots and under surface of the leaves by sucking the leaf sap causing curling and crinkling of the leaves
They secrete a sticky, sugary substance called honeydew, which causes black sooty mould development that accumulates on the leaves and attracts other insects, such as ants
This also reduces the photosynthetic activity leading to stunted growth.
Stage of occurrence – Vegetative, flowering and fruiting stage
Vector – Bacterial wilt disease
Identification of Symptoms
Larvae feed on the roots of the plants, causing wilting and stunting
Adult cucumber beetles feed on the foliage of watermelon plants, causing defoliation and thus reduces photosynthesis.
They feed on the surface of the watermelon fruit, leaving shallow, irregularly shaped scars on the rind. This type of cosmetic damage may not affect the quality of the fruit, but it can reduce its marketability.
Refer to the product label to find the right time of application and more details of the product.
It is advised to spray Bio-fungicides during early morning or evening hours when the temperature is relatively cool to get best results.
Conclusion
Insect pests can affect watermelon plants at any stage of growth, from seedlings to mature plants and can cause damage to the leaves, stems and fruit. This can result in reduced plant growth, decreased fruit quality and size and in severe cases, even plant death. Effective pest management strategies, such as regular monitoring, good agronomic practices and the use of chemical and biological control methods, can help in controlling the pest damage, protect the yield and quality of watermelon crops.
Effective Strategies for Managing Yellow Rust Disease in Wheat Crops
Wheat (Triticum aestivum) is one of the important staple crops of India which is cultivated in the Rabi season. It contributes to a significant share in total wheat production of over 109 million tons during the year 2021. Major wheat growing states in India includes Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Haryana, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Gujarat and Bihar.
Yellow rust also known as Stripe rust in wheat is a serious disease in India, which is a threat to wheat-growing farmers. Yellow rust may cause around 50% of yield loss, but under severe conditions, it can cause 100% yield loss. The disease can reduce yield and grain quality, leading to economic losses for farmers.
Causes of Yellow/Stripe Rust in Wheat
Yellow or Stripe rust is caused by the fungus Puccinia striiformis. It is a prevalent disease of wheat during winter or early spring months. The disease can infect all stages of wheat growth but is most damaging during the early stages of plant growth.
Cool and damp weather conditions: Temperature of about 10-15°C, high humidity and intermittent rainfall or dew favours disease development
Spread: The disease spreads through wind currents that causes airborne spores to travel long distances and infect healthy plants
Lack of crop rotation: Growing the same type of wheat varieties for many years can increase disease severity
Susceptible varieties: Growing varieties that are susceptible to wheat yellow rust influences disease spread
Symptoms of Yellow Rust in Wheat
Presence of yellowish orange pustules on the leaves
Small, bright yellow to orange pustules or flecks of urediospores appears on the leaves, along the veins of the leaves
As the disease progresses, the pustules may merge together and causes necrotic stripes on the leaves
On mature leaves, the symptom appears as linear and stripe-like pattern
At the end of the season, teliospores appears as secondary black spores among the stripe of the pustules
On susceptible varieties, these pustules containing yellow to orange fungal spores erupt from the leaves
The disease symptoms may also appear in leaf sheath, neck and glumes
It also causes chlorosis or yellowing of leaves which affects the photosynthetic activity, resulting in stunted growth with weakened plants, reduced tillering, shrivelled grains with only few spikes and reduced grain weight
Preventive Measures
Select varieties that are region specific and resistant to yellow rust and other diseases
Early planting can help avoid the peak period of yellow rust infection. It allows wheat to mature before the disease spreads
Good agronomic practices, such as proper planting density, appropriate irrigation and timely weed control, can help prevent yellow rust incidence
Follow mixed cropping and crop rotation with suitable crops such as legumes, mustard, and barley to break the disease cycle by reducing the amount of inoculum in the soil
Avoid excessive application of nitrogenous fertilizers
Spray Barrix control, a microbiostat at 0.3 gm/lit of water that inhibits the growth of fungus causing yellow rust
Regularly monitor the wheat field for any signs of the yellow rust infection so that early management strategies can be opted to reduce loss
Remove and destroy crop residues after harvest
Management of Yellow Rust in Wheat:
For effective management of yellow or stripe rust in wheat crops, combinations of both Triazoles and Strobilurin class fungicides can be sprayed to get best results.
Use the following fungicides for controlling yellow rust in wheat crop;
(NOTE: Check the product’s label before use to know the right time of spray application)
Conclusion:
Yellow or Stripe rust caused by the fungus Puccinia striiformis in wheat is a devastating disease in India that can reduce yield and grain quality. In recent years, there has been an increase in the incidence and severity of this disease. To manage the disease, farmers should regularly monitor the signs of disease incidence, take preventive measures, use fungicides judiciously and follow recommended application rates and schedules. Following these strategies can help to minimize the impact of yellow rust disease on wheat.
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Sigatoka Disease in Banana – Causes, Symptoms, Preventive Measures and Management
Banana is one of the most important fruit crops grown widely in almost all parts of India. India stands 1st in the production of banana worldwide with an estimation of about 33 million metric tons in the year 2021. In India, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Gujarat, Maharashtra and Karnataka are the major banana growing states. However, sigatoka leaf spot is a significant problem for banana farmers in India. Sigatoka leaf spot is a fungal disease that affects banana plants and can cause significant yield loss if not managed properly.
The disease can reduce the yield of banana by up to 50%, resulting in significant economic losses for farmers. It can also impact the quality of the fruit, making it unsuitable for both domestic and export markets. The disease spreads very quickly under favourable conditions and hence its early detection, monitoring and management is crucial to reduce yield loss and protect fruit quality.
Types of Sigatoka Leaf Spot in Banana
Types of Sigatoka leaf spot commonly affecting banana plantation includes;
Black Sigatoka leaf spot (Mycosphaerella fijiensis)
Among the two species of fungus causing Sigatoka leaf spot in banana, yellow sigatoka leaf spot cause serious threat to the banana production while black sigatoka leaf spot is not much prevalent in India.
Identify the factors causing Sigatoka Leaf spot in Banana
Environment conditions – High humidity and temperature between 25 – 30°C, rainfall, prolonged leaf wetness as surface moisture helps in quicker spread of disease
Susceptible varieties – Cultivation of banana varieties that are susceptible to sigatoka leaf spot like Cavendish and Robusta
Plant nutrition – Plants that are deficient in key nutrients such as potassium are high susceptible
Field conditions – Poor drainage, presence of infected leaves and plant debris
Symptoms of Sigatoka Leaf spot in Banana
Symptom of Sigatoka Leaf spot in Banana
Initially, light yellow or brownish green streaks appear near the tip or margin of leaf lamina and also on the midrib of the leaves
Later, these streaks enlarge in size and become spindle shaped spots on foliage with light greyish center surrounded by yellow halo that runs parallel to the veins
Gradually the leaves dry leading to defoliation of affected leaves
Under favourable conditions, the disease spreads to entire leaves and becomes severe after the emergence of fruit bunch
The fruits in the infected plants appear undersized and may ripen prematurely, ultimately reducing the yield.
Preventive Measures
Grow varieties that are less susceptible to the disease
Planting should be taken up in well drained soils and maintain proper drainage
Avoid waterlogging because it can cause the roots to rot and weaken the plant further favouring fungal infection
Avoid planting suckers with close spacing
Prune the suckers periodically to avoid overcrowding in the field and maintain only one or two healthy suckers
Periodically remove and destroy affected leaves to avoid further spreading of fungus
Do not use pruning tools on infected plants without disinfecting them
Follow balanced application of fertilizers
Keep the fields free from weeds and other crop debris
Irrigation provided under the plant canopy is advised to avoid wetting of leaves and creating high humidity
Use sticking and spreading agent like Anshul Stick Max Adjuvant at 1 ml/lit of spray solution when applying chemical fungicides for effective use efficiency and better management.
In the case of organic cultivation of banana plantations, use of biological agents mentioned in the table along with Neem oil at 5 ml/lit water which may help in preventing and managing sigatoka leaf spot disease in banana.
Time of application: Fungicides can be sprayed at an interval of 15 – 20 days.
Conclusion:
Sigatoka leaf spot disease is a fungal disease that poses a significant threat to the banana plants throughout the country. The fungus infects the banana leaves and causes spots, later leading to the drying and defoliation of leaves, affecting the fruit quality and thus reducing the yield. Effective management of Sigatoka disease requires a combination of cultural and chemical control methods, including the use of resistant varieties, effective fungicide applications and maintaining field sanitation. It is crucial to implement these preventive measures and management strategies consistently to protect the banana crop from this devastating disease.
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Integrated Approach for Management of Leaf Miners in Crops
Leaf miner is one of the serious pests that attack a wide range of crops including vegetables, fruits, ornamentals and cause economic yield loss. Larva is the attacking stage of the pest that causes damage to leaf tissues, reducing photosynthesis and ultimately reducing the yield and quality of crops. They are typically small maggots that range in colour from yellow to green or brown. They have piercing and sucking type of mouthpart that allows them to scrape and feed on the plant’s tissue. The feeding activity of the larvae creates distinctive trails or tunnels on the surface of the leaf, which can vary in shape and size depending on the species of leaf miner.
Leaf miner infestation can cause significant damage to crops affecting their growth and yield. Effective management of leaf miners requires timely detection and a combination of several control measures to reduce their impact on the crop.
Different Species of Leaf miner:
Liriomyza spp. – This genus of leaf miner is one of the most destructive and widely distributed. They attack a wide range of crops, including beans, peas, tomatoes and ornamental plants. Liriomyza huidobrensis, Liriomyza trifolii and Liriomyza sativae are some of the most common species
Chromatomyia horticola. – This is a major pest of many vegetable crops like beans, peas and potato
Tuta absoluta – It is a major pest of tomato crop causing extensive damage and reducing yield due to larval feeding on leaves, stems and fruits of tomato plants
Phyllocnistis citrella – This is citrus leaf miner that infests citrus plants
Pegomya hyoscyami – This isSpinach leaf miners which infests on Spinach and Radishes
Host crops:
Leaf miners infest a wide range of plants, including vegetables, fruits and ornamentals. Tomato, potato, okra, citrus, spinach, pepper, peas, beans, beets, cucurbits and crucifereous vegetables are the commonly affected crops.
Symptoms of Leaf miner infestation in crops:
Larva feeds on the internal tissues of the leaves by creating shallow tunnels or trails that appear as discolored or brown patches on the leaf surface
Leaves curl due to the mining activity of larva in the lower or upper surface of the leaves
Infested leaves may appear pale or yellow and in severe cases, they may turn brown and wither
Leaves of the affected plant becomes distorted or shriveled
Severe leaf miner infestations can cause stunted growth of the affected plant, leading to reduced yields and poor-quality produce
Causes drying and pre-mature dropping of affected leaves
The feeding activity of the larva can weaken the plant, making it more susceptible to other pests and diseases like citrus canker due to secondary source of infection.
Favourable conditions for Leaf miner incidence:
Warm temperature, high humidity, presence of host crops, monoculture cropping, presence of plant debris, excessive use of pesticides can favour leaf miner infestation.
Preventive Measures:
Maintain field sanitation by removal and destruction of the infested leaves and crop debris
Using sticky traps help to detect leaf miner activity early and allow for timely intervention
Release of biological control agents such as parasitic wasps and predatory insects can be used to control leaf miner populations
Spraying neem oil on the leaf surface
Optimum use of fertilizers
Avoid water stress conditions in the field because it can weaken the plants
Crop rotation with non-host crops
Reflective mulch
Regularly monitor the crops for any signs of leaf miner infestation in weekly interval
(NOTE: Presence of eggs and larvae in leaf, pupae in soil and adult on plants are needed to be killed in integrated methods for effective control of leaf miners. Insecticides with translaminar or systemic mode of action can be used to control leaf miner. Please check the product label before use to know the right time of application)
Conclusion:
Leaf miner can cause reduced plant growth, reduced yield and premature leaf drop which can affect the overall productivity of the crop. Integrated management of leaf miners in crops involves a combination of preventive and management measures that can effectively control leaf miner infestations and minimize crop damage. Preventive and biological control measures can be used to detect and control infestations at an early stage. In severe cases, chemical control may be necessary, but it should only be used as a last resort and with caution to prevent harm to beneficial insects and pollinators.
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Harvesting Profits: How Summer or Zaid Crops can Boost your Income
India, being a country with diverse climatic conditions, has several seasons of farming. The planting time for the crops varies depending on the type of crop, seasons, region, and climate. In India, crops are commonly classified into three seasons of planting which are Kharif, Rabi, and Zaid. Kharif season, also known as the monsoon season typically starts in June and ends in September. Rabi season or winter season runs from October to March. Zaid or Summer cropping season runs from March to June. The different seasons of farming in India provide an opportunity for farmers to diversify their crops and income sources, contributing to the overall agricultural growth of the country.
The total area under cultivation of summer or zaid crops has increased progressively 2.7 times from 29.71 lakh hectares in the year 2017 – 18 to 80.46 lakh hectares in 2020 – 21. By following proper management techniques and investing in the right crops, farmers can increase their yield and profit margins during the summer season.
Zaid or Summer Cropping Season:
Zaid crops are the crops grown during the summer season from March to June. They are short-duration crops mostly comprising hybrids. Crops that are adapted to the hot and dry weather conditions of summer are planted in this season. The crops that require warmer weather for vegetative growth and longer day length for reproductive growth such as cucumber, watermelon, muskmelon, bhendi, bitter gourd, brinjal, black gram, green gram, pumpkin, and tomato are usually grown during the zaid season.
Explore why growing zaid crops can be a smart choice:
Some of the features of crops grown in the zaid/summer season include:
Summer crops have a short growing duration and can be harvested within 60 – 90 days after sowing. This allows farmers to grow multiple crops in a year, increasing their income.
These crops can withstand hot and dry conditions of the summer season and are typically drought and heat-stress tolerant.
Zaid crops require less water than kharif and rabi crops, thus making them suitable for cultivation in areas with limited water availability.
Despite their short duration, zaid crops can give higher yields if proper management practices are followed.
They can provide an additional source of income for farmers during the lean period between kharif and rabi seasons
Zaid crops are less prone to pests and diseases, as the dry conditions of the summer season make it difficult for pests and diseases to thrive.
Zaid crops such as watermelon and muskmelon have high market demand during the summer season, which can provide good returns for the farmers.
The cultivation of summer crops helps to improve soil health. For instance, growing leguminous pulses and oilseeds can act as soil conditioners.
Growing these crops helps in the diversification of agriculture by reducing the dependence on a single crop. This can help mitigate the risk of crop failure due to factors such as climate change, pests, and disease infestation.
Farmers can compensate for the losses incurred due to heavy rainfall during the kharif and rabi seasons by the cultivation of summer crops.
Many zaid crops such as watermelon, cucumber, muskmelon, pumpkin, and bitter gourd are rich in vitamins and minerals, thus making them a nutritional addition to the diet.
Summer crops such as maize and soybean are used as animal feed.
Maximize the yield of your summer crops by using these hybrid seeds:
Summer crops play a vital role in ensuring food security and supporting the livelihoods of farmers in many regions. While challenges such as water scarcity and high temperatures may make summer crop cultivation more difficult. Choosing the right crops, seeds, and cultivation techniques can help increase yield and maximize profits. Zaid or summer season crops, such as watermelon, cucumber, and muskmelon can provide farmers with an opportunity to diversify their income and adopt sustainable farming practices. Additionally, buying the right variety or hybrid seeds can help ensure optimal yield and make summer crop growth profitable.
Viruses are obligate parasites that require a living host for their growth and multiplication.Viruses enter plant cells through wounds usually made mechanically or by vectors. Viral diseases are a significant cause of crop loss in India, affecting crops such as rice, wheat, maize, sugarcane, tomato and potato, among others. Infections caused by various viruses cause an average yield loss of about 70 – 80%. The extent of loss may also range 90 – 100% depending upon various factors like severity of disease, source of infection, duration of infection and environmental conditions.
Symptoms of viral diseases in plants can vary depending on the virus and the host plant. However, some of the most common symptoms include stunted growth, yellowing of leaves, mottling or streaking of leaves, necrosis, distorted leaves or flowers, wilting and reduced yield. Therefore, prevention and control of viral diseases in plants is crucial for maintaining plant health and crop yield.
Transmission of Plant viruses:
Plant viruses are transmitted through various sources from an infected plant to a healthy plant;
Vegetative Propagation
Vegetative parts such as tubers, bulbs, cuttings or rhizomes of the infected plants when used as mother plants for propagation will serve as source of viral infection. The new plant raised will also be infected by the viral disease.
Seeds
Seeds can be a source of spreading viral infection in plants. Seeds can be affected by viruses through contaminated soil or water. Virus infected seed can transmit virus to plants through seed. This can result in a new generation of infected plants, which can then spread the virus to other plants through various means, such as insect vectors, contaminated soil, water etc.
Mechanical transmission
Mechanical transmission of virus occurs when the virus is physically transmitted from one plant to another by rubbing of sap of infected plants over healthy plants or through contact with contaminated tools and equipments or through human handling during intercultural practices.
Pollen transmission
When a pollinator visits an infected plant and collects pollen, the virus can be transferred to other plants as the pollinator moves from one plant to another. The virus can also be transferred through wind, which can spread the infected pollen over longer distances.
Insect transmission
Plant viruses can also be spread through insect transmission, and this is known as vector transmission. Insects such as aphids, whiteflies, leaf hoppers and thrips are common vectors for many plant viruses. Other than this, nematodes and mites also act as vectors for viral infection.
Major Viral Diseases in Plants:
Tobacco Mosaic Virus:
Host range – Tobacco, Potato, Brinjal, Pepper, Cucumber
Transmitted by – Sap, contaminated farm equipments, soil debris, hands of farm labours
Symptoms – Mottling pattern of light and dark green patches on the leaf lamina, stunted growth, development of blisters/irregular crumbled swellings on leaves, small and misshapen infected leaves.
Cauliflower Mosaic Virus (CaMV)
Host range – Tomato, Melons, Squash, Beet, Spinach, Broccoli, Cabbage
Vector – Aphids
Symptoms – Mosaic patterns on affected leaves, young leaves become twisted leading to stunted growth.
Sugarcane Mosaic Virus
Host range – Sugarcane
Vector – Aphids; Transmitted by – Infected canes used as seed/sett
Symptoms – Yellowish/Chlorotic stripes with alternate normal green portion of the leaf, stunted growth.
Maize Mosaic Virus
Host range – Maize
Vector – Leaf hopper
Symptoms – Chlorotic stripes and spots on leaf, leaf sheath, stalks & husks, moderate to severe rosette formation on new growth.
Symptoms – Mosaic patterns, stunted growth, distortion of leaves, yellowing of veins, necrotic spots or streaks on infected leaves.
Groundnut Bud Necrosis
Host range – Groundnut, Tomato, Green gram
Vector – Thrips
Symptoms – Mottling or chlorotic spots on leaves, necrosis of terminal bud, distortion of lamina, reduction in leaflet size, reduced flowering, production of abnormally small and wrinkled seeds.
Leaf Curl Virus
Tomato leaf curl virus
Host range – Tobacco, Cotton, Papaya, Guava, Chilli, Tomato
Vector – Whitefly
Symptoms – Stunted growth due to reduced nodes and internodes size, curling of leaf margins upward and downward, thickening of veins, crinkling and distortion of leaves.
Vein Clearing / Yellow vein Mosaic
Host range – Bhendi
Vector – Whitefly
Symptoms – Yellowing of veins in the leaf blade, reduced size of younger leaves and stunted growth, flowering and fruiting are restricted, if formed are small and hard.
Rice Tungro Virus
Host range – Paddy
Vector – Leaf hopper
Symptoms – Stunted growth, yellow to orange discoloration of leaves, interveinal chlorosis, reduced tillering with poor root system.
Tomato Spotted Wilt Virus
Tomato Spotted Wilt Virus
Host range – Tomato
Vector – Thrips
Symptoms – Appearance of streaks on leaves, stems and fruits. Leaves have small, dark, circular spots and may have bronzed appearance. Numerous concentric circular markings on fruits. Ripe fruits show alternate red and yellow markings.
Papaya ringspot mosaic virus
Papaya ring spot virus
Host range – Papaya, Guava
Vector – Aphids
Symptoms – Vein clearing, leaf margin roll downwards and inwards, mottling patterns, dark green blisters, fruits having circular concentric rings on them, stunted growth.
Sterility Mosaic
Host range – Red gram
Vector – Eriophyid mite
Symptoms – Bushy and pale green appearance of affected plants, excessive vegetative growth, mosaic pattern on leaves, reduction in leaf size, stunted growth, complete or partial termination of flowering leading to sterility.
Bunchy Top Virus
Host range – Banana
Vector – Aphids; Transmitted by – Infected suckers (Primary source of infection)
Symptoms – Stunted plant growth, reduction in leaf size, leaf marginal chlorosis and curling, leaves crowded at the top giving “bunchy top” appearance and smaller branch size.
Potato Leafroll Virus
Host range – Potato, Tomato, Capsicum
Vector – Aphids
Symptoms – Stunted growth, chlorotic spots, mottling patterns, leaves roll upwards, upright orientation of leaves.
Citrus Tristeza Virus
Host range – Citrus
Vector– Aphids
Symptoms – Development of deficiency symptoms on leaves, dieback of twigs, decay of roots, reduced fruit set.
Grassy Stunt Virus
Host range – Paddy
Vector– Brown Plant Hopper
Symptoms – Stunted plant growth with excessive tillering, pale green leaves with rusty spots, grassy and rosette appearance of plants.
Ragged Stunt Virus
Host range – Paddy
Vector– Brown Plant Hopper
Symptoms – Dark green leaves with spiky or serrated edges, leaf edges are twisted into spirals giving ragged appearance, stunted plant growth, delayed flowering, incomplete panicle emergence.
Mungbean Yellow Mosaic Virus
Host range – Black gram, Green gram, Moth bean, Soybean, Cow pea
Vector– Whitefly
Symptoms – Stunted growth, yellowing, presence of mosaic patterns, delayed maturity, reduced flower and pod formation if produced pods would be small and distorted.
Preventive Measures to Control Plant Viral Diseases:
Use disease resistant plant varieties
Use certified virus free planting materials such as seeds or cuttings
Adopt crop rotation of host crops with non-host crops. Thiscan help break the cycle of viral infections in the soil and reduce the risk of virus buildup
Cultivate trap crops to avoid disease causing insect vectors i.e., marigold in bhendi and cowpea in cucurbits field to control whitefly
Practice proper sanitation practices by removing and destroying infected plants and plant debris, cleaning and disinfecting equipment,to prevent spread of viral diseases
Isolate the plants that are known to be infected with viral diseases
Control the disease-causing insect vectors by using appropriate insecticides
Management of White fly, Aphids, Thrips, Leafhoppers:
Plant viruses can have a significant impact on crop production and can cause a range of symptoms that vary depending on the host plant, virus strain and environmental factors. Plant viruses can be transmitted through vectors such as insects or through mechanical means, leading to significant economic loss of yield. Effective management strategies can help prevent the spread of plant viruses and reduce their impact on crops. Using virus-free planting materials, practicing good sanitation practices, controlling vectors through the use of insecticides and implementing crop rotation can help prevent the spread of viruses.
Good Agricultural Practices for Maximizing Muskmelon Harvest
Muskmelon (Cucumis melo L) is a fruit crop widely cultivated by farmers in India particularly during summer season. It is a warm season crop known for its unique flavour and taste. The fruit is known for its high-water content and has cooling effect on the body. They are rich in rich in Vitamin A and C. Immature fruits are used as vegetables and their seeds are edible. It is used for making desserts. In India, Muskmelon is mainly grown in Punjab, Tamil Nadu, Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana and Madhya Pradesh. India is the 3rd largest producer of muskmelon in the world after China and Turkey.
Season and Climate:
Muskmelon is mostly grown from November to February. The optimum temperature for seed germination is 23 – 25°C and optimum temperature required for its growth and fruit development is around 20 – 32°C. High temperature and low humidity at fruit ripening stage will enhance the sweetness and aroma of the fruit. Warm nights will hasten the fruit’s maturity. Muskmelons are tolerant to drought but susceptible to frost. High humid conditions will promote the occurrence and spread of diseases like downy mildew, anthracnose and insects like fruitfly.
Fruit flesh: Dense netting with orange flesh with aroma and sweet in taste
TSS: 12 – 15%
Fruit weight: 1 – 2 kg
Days to first harvest: 70-75 Days for Maturity After Transplanting
Good tolerance against fusarium & diseases caused by virus, Good for Long Transport
Soil requirement:
A well-drained sandy loam soil rich in organic matter is ideal for muskmelon cultivation. pH of the soil may range from 6.5 – 7.5. Muskmelon is slightly tolerant to soil acidity but cannot tolerate soils with high salt concentration. Lighter soils enhance the maturity of fruit, thus early harvest. In case of heavy soils, there exists good vine growth, but the maturity of the crop/fruit gets delayed.
Seed rate:
400 – 600 gm/acre
Methods of Sowing and Planting:
Sowing is done in between October to November in Southern and Central part of India. Muskmelon is usually direct seeded and transplanted. To get better germination, seeds should be soaked in water for 12 – 24 hours before sowing. Muskmelon seeds are sown in pits and raised beds while in riverbed cultivation, they are sown in trenches. Before sowing, treat the seeds with Trichoderma viride at 1.25 gm/lit water or Pseudomonas fluorescenceat 5 – 10 ml per 50 ml of water or Metalaxyl 4% + Manconzeb 64% WP at 1-1.5 gm/ liter of water.
Early crop raised from seedling grown in polythene bags matures 15 to 20 days earlier compared to direct seeded crops.
Direct Sowing
Seedling establishment
Pit
Raised bed
Polybags
Protrays
* Pits of about 60 cm wide, 60 cm long and 45 cm deep are to be dug out. Pits should be spaced at about 1.5 – 2 m apart. Fill them with FYM or well-decomposed compost.
* Sow 5 – 6 seeds in each pit with a depth of 1 – 1.5 cm. Cover the seeds with soil.
* After establishment, only 2 or 3 plants in each pit will be allowed to grow while rest others will be uprooted.
* Prepare beds of 3 – 4 meter wide.
* Sow 2 seeds/hill on both sides of the beds at 60 cm distance between hills.
* The polythene bags of 15cm x 10cm size punched at base should be filled with equal proportion of soil:FYM or soil:FYM:silt (in case the soil is sandy).
* Seeds should not be sown deeper than 1.5 cm.
* Seedlings can be raised in protrays under protected conditions.
* Protrays having 98 cells can be used.
* 1 – 2 seeds can be sown per cell.
Field Preparation:
Main field should be ploughed to fine tilth and long channels are to be formed at 2.5 m apart.
Spacing:
Place the seedlings about 2-3 feet apart in rows that are 5-6 feet apart.
Transplanting:
Transplant the seedlings of 20 – 30 days old with at least 2 – 3 true leaves. Seedling is transplanted at the edges of furrows or lower half height of the ridge, so that sufficient irrigation or moisture is available to plants. Irrigation is done immediately after transplanting.
Manures and Fertilizers:
Farmyard manure and neem cake can be applied at the time of land preparation. Half dose of N, full dose of P & K can be applied as basal while remaining N can be applied at the time of earthing up at 4 weeks after sowing. Application of micronutrients promotes plant growth, increases fruit yield, flesh and thickness of rind.
General dose of fertilizer recommendation for muskmelon is 32:24:12 kg/acre.
Muskmelon requires frequent but light irrigation especially during the early stages of crop growth. For direct sown crop, 1st irrigation can be delayed if the soil has sufficient moisture. For transplanted crop, irrigation is done immediately after transplanting. Subsequent irrigation can be given at weekly intervals. Irrigation can be done when it is absolutely necessary at the time of fruit maturity i.e., when withering is seen on the veins in the morning. Excessive irrigation at fruit maturity must be stopped, if not it will decrease sweetness of the fruit. A total of 7–11 irrigations may be required for the whole crop season depending on the soil type and growing season.
‘Drip irrigation’ is recommended for better quality of fruit, minimizing disease and weed infestation and for water conservation.
Intercultural operations:
Weeding:
To control weeds, flooding of field should never be allowed. If possible, drip irrigation can be installed
During early growth stages, the field should be kept free from weeds
Weeding and earthing up should be done when N is applied as top dressing
During initial stages of vine growth, light hoeing is recommended.
Mulching:
Mulching can be done with straw mulches, so that fruits do not come in contact with water.
Pruning:
Remove the secondary shoots up to 7th node on main stem to improve plant growth and fruit set. Pruning helps to improve yield and fruit quality.
Use of Plant Growth Regulators (PGR):
Stages of Application: Vegetative, flowering and fruit development stage (Also refer to the product label before application)
Half-slip stage: Fruits are not fully ready for table use, but are good for distant market use. Slight pressure is required to harvest fruit from the stem
Full –slip stage: Fruits are completely ready for table use and also best for local market. Pressure is not required to separate fruit from the stem
Musky flavour: On ripening, the fruits produce a pleasant musky flavour
Change in colour: At the fruit ripening stage, the rind becomes soft, fruit skin colour changes from green to yellow
Full netting: On the fruit surface, a net-like structure is developed.
Storage:
Muskmelon are perishable fruits and can be stored in room temperature only for 2 – 4 days. They can be stored in cold store at 2-4°C and 85 – 90% relative humidity for 2 – 3 weeks.
Blooming Success: Strategies for Managing Mango Flowers to Boost Yields
Mango (Mangifera indica) is one the most important tropical fruit in India. India is the largest producer of mangoes in the world, accounting to about 21 million metric tons in the year 2022. Mango flowering is a critical stage as it directly affects the yield of the fruit. Flowering in mango is highly dependent on the variety and environmental conditions. Thus, proper management strategies taken during mango flowering stage can improve the potential number of fruit production.
Mango Flower initiation:
Mango trees typically begin to flower after 5–8 years of growth when they reach maturity. Mango flowering season generally starts from December to February. However, depending upon the time of flower initiation, fruit development starts from January to May. Cooler temperatures (15-20°C during daytime and 10-15°C during night hours) with bright sunshine are an important requirement for the mango flower initiation. High humidity, frost or rain during the flowering period affects the flower formation. Cloudy weather during flowering favours the spread of mango hoppers and diseases, hampering mango growth and flowering.
How does flowering affects fruit production in mango?
Mango flowers are small, yellowish or pinkish red coloured, clustered together in panicles, which hang down from the branches. They are hermaphrodite flowers but cross-pollination by pollinators contributes to maximum fruit set. Common pollinators include bees, wasps, moths, butterflies, flies, beetles and ants.
The number of flowers produced, and the duration of flowering stage can directly affect the yield of fruits. However, flowering is influenced by several factors such as temperature, humidity, sunlight, pest and disease incidence and availability of water and nutrients. These factors affect the timing and intensity of the flowering. If the above factors are not optimal during flowering stage, it will result in fewer or smaller fruits. Not all flowers produced will set fruit. Proper pollination is essential for the fruit to set and develop fully. Even after adequate pollination, only a few proportions of flowers set fruits because of massive drop of flowers and fruits due to several factors such as weather conditions and pest infestations. This ultimately affects the yield and quality of fruits. The timing, duration, and intensity of flowering can significantly affect fruit production in mangotrees.
Know how effective management of flowering can increase yield in mango:
1. Intercultural operation:
Pruning mango trees can induce flowering. Lack of pruning leads to dense growth of mango canopy, preventing light from penetrating the interior portions of tree and thus reducing the flowering and yield. Pruning the tips of shoots may initiate flowers. The best time to prune is after harvest, usually during October to December. Tip pruning which is done 10 cm above the last internode may improve flowering. Girdling is a method used for inducing fruit bud formation in mango. It involves removal of strip of bark from the trunk of mango tree. This enhances flowering, fruit set and fruit size by increasing foliar carbohydrates and plant hormones in above parts of the girdle by blocking the downward translocation of metabolites through phloem. Fruit set is increased when girdling is done at the time of inflorescence emergence. Care should be taken regarding the depth of the girdling. Excessive girdling depth could harm the tree.
2. Plant growth Regulators (PGRs):
PGRs can be used to control flowering and increase yields by influencing the physiological processes that regulate plant growth and development. Paclobutrazol is a common plant growth regulator used in mango trees which helps in reducing vegetative growth and promotes flowering. Ethephon and NAA also help in inducing flowering, preventing shedding of flower buds and fruit ripening. They help in enlarging fruit size, increasing and improving the quality and yield of fruits.
First spray in mid-October or early November total 5 spray at fortnightly interval (For breaking alternate bearings)
Commencing from early November total 5 sprays at weekly interval (Induce flowering)
Katyayani NAA
Alpha Naphthyl Acetic Acid 4.5% SL
Foliar: 0.2 – 0.3 ml/lit water
Spray when tender fruits are of pea size
(NOTE: PGRs must be carefully managed to avoid negative effects on plant growth and development, such as excessive branching, reduced fruit size, or delayed flowering. Check the dosage and time of application before use)
3. Nutrient Management:
Nutrient management plays a crucial role in inducing flowering in mango trees. Nitrogen is essential for the growth and development of plants. However, excessive nitrogen can delay mango flowering by promoting vegetative growth instead of flowering initiation. This can also cause imbalance in other nutrients like P and K which are important for flowering. Over-use of nitrogen increases susceptibility to pest infestation due to increase of vegetative growth. Optimum amount of N should be used to manage flowering. Phosphorus is essential for flower initiation and fruit set in mango trees. Apply phosphorus fertilizer during the pre-flowering stage to promote flower initiation. Adequate potassium levels can enhance flowering in mango trees and increase the number of flowers and fruit. Potassium helps in the transport of nutrients and water to the fruit, which is essential for its growth and size. It also helps in increasing resistance in plants against moisture stress, heat, frost and against disease.
Application of micro-nutrients gives better results by improving flowering, quality of fruits and controls dropping of fruits.
Time of application: 2 – 3 sprays at an interval of 25–30 days between the sprays starting from flower initiation
Reduces and flower and fruit drop, increases fruit setting
Helps against climatic fluctuations and reduces flower or fruit droppings.
4. Pest and Disease Management:
During flower and fruit formation, there is a high chance of pest and disease infestation leading to risk of losing flowers and premature fruits. Mango hoppers, flower gall midge, mealy bug and leaf webber are the major pest attacking the mango flowers. Mango Powdery mildew, mango malformation and anthracnose are the diseases affecting mango flowers leading to reduced fruit development.
Mango flower has both male and female reproductive parts in the same flower. However, mango flowers are relatively small and do not produce a large amount of nectar or pollen. Therefore, they are heavily dependent on pollinators such as flies, wasps and other insects, to transfer pollen between flowers. Without pollination, mango flowers may not produce fruit, or the fruit may be small or misshapen. Cross-pollination increases the yield in mango. It is important to note that pesticides and fungicides should not be sprayed during Full Bloom stage since pollination by insects will get affected at this time leading to reduced yield.
6. Weather conditions:
Optimal weather conditions during flowering can lead to a higher rate of successful fruit set and increased yields. For example, Excessive wind speed causes massive drop of flowers and fruits. Thus, it is essential to provide wind protection to mango orchards by planting windbreaks/shelterbelts.
7. Water Management:
Sufficient amount of water is required for mango trees especially during the growing season. Inadequate or excessive watering can lead to reduced yield and quality of fruit. Proper water management can also help to prevent disease and pests, which thrive in moist environments. In hot and dry climates, irrigation can help to increase humidity levels and reduce temperature fluctuations, providing a more favorable environment for mango growth. Excessive irrigation may reduce soil temperature, which in turn leads to reduced plant growth and development. On the other hand, inadequate watering can lead to a rise in soil temperatures, damaging the plant roots and leading to reduced yields. Thus, effective water management is essential to ensure healthy plant growth and fruit production.
Conclusion:
Managing mango flowers for higher yields involves a combination of strategies aimed at optimizing plant growth, managing pests and diseases, and ensuring optimal environmental conditions for flower development and pollination. Following these management practices can increase flower and fruit production, leading to higher yields and improved fruit quality.
